Feminism. The problems of the meanings of sex and gender (and any other categories you might think of) and how to understand ourselves as biological and social beings are profoundly theoretical topics and how these problems are addressed will surely have an impact on how human psychology is understood. Feminist Theory is an international interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal that provides a forum for critical analysis and constructive debate within feminism.. In the introduction to the issue, Walkerdine (1996) highlighted how the mid-1990’s authors problematized the ways in which the political Left and feminists in the 1970s and 1980s had analysed class. Namely, in focusing on differences one necessarily loses sight of the similarities, and in focusing on similarities one necessarily glosses over differences. Those with a biological interest also take on the complex question of how biology is connected to our social and cultural worlds and how to theorize the biological and material in ways that are not harmful to women and other marginalized people. Below I offer some commentary on the individual articles selected, by highlighting their theoretical contributions. I will touch on this in a little more detail in introducing the articles. While textbooks and readers provide clear evidence of the decade by decade approach to feminist theory I am interested in examining, they are not as Theory is an important preoccupation of articles published in Feminism & Psychology. Most psychologists then (who were primarily men) were so convinced of this truth that they were prepared to assert it without any scientific evidence (Weisstein, 1968/1993). The selected articles fit well with Ahmed’s conceptualization of feminist theory as a critical practice. Notably, feminist psychology and theoretical psychology are generally positioned on the margins of the dominant or mainstream indigenous psychologies that have developed within Canada and the United States (and I dare say, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia). Postmodernism(s) is also a complicated and large topic, but it is worthwhile to clarify a few points in order to locate the selected articles within this theoretical tradition. Consistent with critical psychology, she noted that the competing knowledge claims need to be adjudicated using moral, political, and ethical criteria (i.e. This perspective draws attention away from comparing individuals assigned to groups based on a priori categories to questions about the meanings assigned to sex and gender, historical shifts in those meanings, variation in meanings across geography and culture, and the consequences of those meanings. It is best understood as both an intellectual and a normative project. Feminist theory is an extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. discourse, is an important feature as knowledge is constituted through discourse. This of course calls into question the assumptions of postpositivist psychology, i.e. Bleier, 1984; Fausto-Sterling, 1992, 2012; Jordan-Young, 2010). Blackman attended to the specificities of how historically class and gender have been produced as risk factors for psychopathology. It is fair to say however that research involving sex/gender comparisons remains controversial, with those adopting a postpositivist approach to psychology (Eagly & Riger, 2014) most likely to engage in comparative research. “The Changing Woman” is a Navajo Myth that gave credit to a woman who, in the end, populated the world. [13] Feminist theory : the intellectual traditions Feminist theory today : an introduction to second-wave feminism Gendermaps : social constructionism, feminism, and sexosophical history As well, it did not offer a clear solution as one can find the terms sex and gender used in a variety of inconsistent ways across the disciplines with these interests (Bluhm, Jacobson, & Maibom, 2012). View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. She goes on to point out that “epistemology is central to feminist theory”, because “reliable, authoritative knowledge is integral to feminist practices of developing informed analyses of social-political oppression and marginalization, and engaging in emancipatory projects” (p. 170).Indeed, the first mid-20th-century feminist critiques in psychology (e.g. Pandemics affect men and women differently. Women & Performance: a journal of feminist theory, Volume 30, Issue 1 (2020) Performances of Contingency: Feminist Relationality and Asian American Studies After the Institution. In this regard, they also reflect similar commitments to those of Theoretical Psychology, an independent but sometimes sympathetic counterpart (see Stam, 2006, 2012a, 2012b for an elaboration of this and how these commitments differ from the mainstream). The selected articles fit well with Ahmed’s conceptualization of feminist theory as a critical practice. From the outset, feminist psychology has been concerned with the biological. IV. Others however were critical of this claim and pointed out, for example, that these may best be understood as “powers of the weak” (Janeway, 1988), i.e. Feminist theory and various forms of feminist critique began long before the formal naming of the school of literary criticism. Traditional epistemologists evaluate sources of evidence and methods of inquiry, seeking criteria for justifying beliefs and knowledge claims, and ways of refuting scepticism. Home 150 Great Articles & Essays Best of 2019 100 Great Books By Subject By Author. In exploring the discourse of stress, Becker noted how it is part of larger discursive movements of the 20th and 21st centuries that medicalize and hence individualize problems that could be construed as arising out of social conditions. Women’s work and the societal discourse of stress, Gender schema theory and its implications for child development: Raising gender-aschematic children in a gender-schematic society, Structuring relationships: On science, feminism and non-human animals, The dangerous classes: Retelling the psychiatric story, Mind-mending and theory building: Lesbian feminism and the psychology question, Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation, Intersectionality and research in psychology, Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics, Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color, Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior, On the advantages of reporting sex comparisons, Feminism and psychology: Critiques of methods and epistemology, Lesbian feminisms: Historical and present possibilities, The five sexes: Why male and female are not enough, Alpha bias and beta bias in research on labour and love: The case of enhancement versus scarcity, Moving toward integrative feminist evolutionary behavioral sciences, Stereotypes, science, censorship and the study of sex differences, Asking the right questions: Feminist psychology and sex differences, Materializing the hypothalamus: A performative account of the ‘gay brain’, Beyond sex differences: A project for feminist psychology, Should psychologists study gender differences? The email address and/or password entered does not match our records, please check and try again. The question of what constitutes feminist theory proves to be somewhat complicated as the meanings of both theory and feminist are up for debate. Thank you for your interest. © 2020 Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse LLC. globalization, the rise of the information society, deindustrialization of developed countries). ... You're a feminist Bad Feminist by Roxane Gay If I am, indeed, a feminist, I am a rather bad one She argued that early second wave feminists distanced themselves from non-human animal research because they were concerned to demonstrate the social construction, and hence arbitrariness, of gender. (2014) argue that Critical Realism (henceforth ‘CR’) solves what they identify as the methodological ‘crisis’ within intersectionality research. The keyword Feminist Theory is tagged in the following 5 articles. The present review integrates theory and empirical research supporting the tenets of feminist therapy. Feminist theory has the potential to move clinicians and educators from theory to action, building bridges of solidarity between the medical profession and the community it is called to serve. Although reflexivity has several meanings (Morawski, 1994), the one that I would like to emphasize is how “what we already know” shapes our understanding of the world. Social role theory is one example: the gendered division of labour in a society is presumed to produce gender stereotypes, which are then internalized by the individual to yield a gendered identity (Eagly & Wood, 2012). Bluhm, R., Jacobson, A. J., Maibom, H. L. (, Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., Mendoza-Denton, R., Rheinschmidt, M. L., Keltner, D. (, Macleod, C., Marecek, J., Capdevila, R. (, Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., Phillips, L. T. (. becomes a woman Simone de Beauvoir. I focus on recent interdisciplinary feminist and cultural theory journal articles, rather than textbooks or readers, to explore these questions. The entire Virtual Special Issue can be accessed on the Feminism & Psychology website, where it is indexed under the heading Collections. The best feminism essays and feminism articles -- Great short articles and essays on feminism. If you need a fast decision, INQUIRIES Journal offers expedited processing of your submission for a small fee. Thus, this collection represents a particular kind of brief and recent history of feminist theory relevant to the psychological project. Instead, he argued, discourses direct the focus of the research, the specific ways in which concepts like sexual orientation and the structure of the hypothalamus are materialized, and which research results garner sufficient attention to become accepted as knowledge. Standpoint theory emerged in the 1970s and has had a lasting influence on feminist thought. History of feminist theory. the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal human condition, came into common usage within the context of queer theory. For example, heteronormativity, i.e. In On Photography, Susan Sontag derides photography for generating a sense of false objectivity. While Burack’s article was situated within the lesbian feminist project (see the 2010 special feature in Feminism & Psychology on Lesbian feminisms, edited by Sonia Ellis and Elizabeth Peel), Annamarie Jagose’s (2009) article, published more than a decade later, illuminated the relations between the feminist project (in psychology as well as more broadly) and the project that has come to be identified as queer studies. It “moves” and “re-mak[es] ‘what is’” (p. 100) by questioning local common sense and the categories of analysis adopted by scholars (and in everyday social interactions). A growing body of feminist and crit-ical race scholarship also developed along lines that paralleled, inter-sected, and challenged critical legal theory.7 This essay charts relationships among these bodies of … This quote also points to a tension that pervades the consideration of differences within feminist psychology. The Coronavirus Is a Disaster for Feminism. Highlighting such diversity then points to possibilities for social change and to imagine the future in novel ways. (2014) argue that Critical Realism (henceforth ‘CR’) solves what they identify as the methodological ‘crisis’ within intersectionality... Who is a woman? whether or not there are natural differences between females and males, stretches back to the late 19th century and early 20th century when psychology as a discipline was taking shape (Shields, 1975). The article revisits the problematic relationship between feminist theory and praxis through the writings of Marysia Zalewski, one of the foremost feminist theorists of IR. It has risen and fallen with the tides of feminism. A key idea is that knowledge is socially constructed, which means that there is no straightforward relationship between “reality” and our knowledge of it. In the introduction to this first issue, I will begin with some critical reflections on theory before moving to the topics at hand. The epistemological perspective of feminist empiricism, which adopts the postpositivism of mainstream psychology (Eagly & Riger, 2014), draws on modernist ideas. Feminist Theory (tagged articles) Photo: Cajsa Lilliehook SA-2. This attempt to resolve the problem of attributing sex and gender to nature has drawn criticism from feminist scientists, however, for presuming that biology (and hence sex) is fixed and provides a foundation for the socialization of gender differences, which are at least somewhat malleable (e.g. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and philosophy. Representing the work of students from hundreds of institutions around the globe, Inquiries Journal's large database of academic articles is completely free. Feminist Theory Mohammad Salik Omar Julkipli Mark Riddle 2. The concern with differences includes the socially constructed categories sex and gender, as well as sexuality and social class. For more information view the SAGE Journals Sharing page. Not surprisingly, then, feminist epistemology is a significant topic in its own right, and here I have barely scratched the surface (for some “classic” sources, see Code, 1991; Collins, 1990; Harding, 1986; hooks, 1989; Keller, 1983; Rose, 1983). This site uses cookies. Peter Hegarty (1997) focused on the claims of Simon LeVay whose published research was widely acclaimed as demonstrating a difference in the brains of gay men and heterosexual men. Hence, attention is diverted from the individual knower to the socio-cultural context of the knower and to concerns about the means by which knowledge becomes legitimated and accepted as true and how this comes to pass. empirical criteria are insufficient). H Lorraine Radtke is professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Canada. [13] Pages: 1-19. Hence, the othering of the non-middle class can return with relative ease. Members of _ can log in with their society credentials below. Thus, postmodernism rejects the objectivity and individualism of postpositivist (i.e. Although sensitivity to power relations means that even early feminists of the mid-20th century were conscious of differences between women, today’s feminist is even more acutely aware of the limits this places on theoretical claims. Looking back at the articles selected, they represent a somewhat narrow range of feminist theoretical scholarship within psychology. The boundaries constructed between humans and non-human animals in psychology contrast with the everyday world in which humans and non-human animals interact in ways that suggest relationality, communication, and interconnection. Yet, this too has roots in feminist scholarship, most notably, Adrienne Rich’s (1980) analysis of compulsory heterosexuality. Find out about Lean Library here, If you have access to journal via a society or associations, read the instructions below. cognition) of the cortex, they recognized that sex and biology are not fixed and ahistorical, but rather, mutable and dependent on past experience and the present context. Thus, in much feminist scholarship, gender is treated as a set of social practices. Rather, there have been evolutions of the different frameworks under the broad heading of "feminist theory" since the late 1700s. Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these issues or not. Research in OECD countries consistently shows that job growth in the entrepreneurial sector is higher than for established (corporate) organizations (Audrestsch and Thurik, 2001). What is her role in society and how does it play out in various institutions? She goes on to note that attempts to explore experience beyond the individual by using theoretical frameworks and methodologies appropriate to the task, such as adopting a postmodern epistemology, may find little traction, especially in the US, because they “fail to meet orthodox standards of the science” (p. 22). Women. By the late 1980s, some feminist psychologists adopted a postmodernist epistemology to argue that sex and gender are socially constructed categories and therefore not reducible to individual characteristics (e.g. I have read and accept the terms and conditions, View permissions information for this article. understood as part of an effort to contest medical control of birth and to Feminist Theory 6(3) Beckett: 3 Feminist Theory . Instead, she finds another woman, blonde and leather jacket-clad. Zalewski has dealt with this relationship through her work on methodology. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. Her interest however was in the use of non-human animals within psychological research and their relationships with human researchers. Those articles addressing the biological represent critical scholarship that is working to negotiate a place for the biology within feminist psychology and entails moving away from the view that the biological is natural and innate. Anthias & Yuval-Davis, 1983). It reflects a paradigm shift in thought that has accompanied a range of economic, cultural, and political changes in the 20th century (e.g. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. 50 Years On, the Feminist Press Is Radical and Relevant A mission to unearth forgotten female writers became a full-fledged publishing house. As she noted, studying the lives of non-human animals may actually contribute to how we theorize gender if research allows for non-human animals to be other than “biological automata” (p. 340). As a political scientist, Burack brought an interdisciplinary, feminist perspective to bear and an emphasis on social theory that to this day eludes many psychologists. Her critique of feminist scholarship for its failure to consider the important distinction between practice, which may be harmful to lesbians, and theory, which also may be harmful to lesbians, was directed at both those within psychology (e.g. Here, she is referring to the debates within feminist psychology about the value of studying sex/gender differences (e.g. Weisstein (1968/1993), for example, in her classic paper argued that social psychological research on the influence of social expectations on behaviour could account for differences that had been assumed to originate in biology.A decade later, Rhoda Unger (1979) wrote another classic paper, outlining a strong argument for distinguishing between sex – to refer to any female–male differences that could be tied to biology – and gender – to refer to any female–male differences that could be tied to social processes. Here is what Lorraine Code (2000, p. 170), a distinguished feminist philosopher of science, had to say about epistemology in the context of feminism: Epistemology – theory of knowledge – investigates the nature and conditions of knowledge. The featured articles can be located on the Feminism & Psychology website and are listed in Appendix 1 at the end of this article. Drawing on Judith Butler (1993), he showed that how LeVay’s research has been taken up rests on a number of normative claims. Given the fact that throughout history women have been collectively denied important rights, it was almost inevitable that a Marxist feminism would emerge that saw … One’s subjective sense of gender (i.e. Despite many significant differences, most feminist theory is reliably suspicious of dualistic thinking, generally oriented toward fluid processes of emergence rather than static entities in one-way relationships, and committed to being a political as well as an intellectual enterprise. Feminism is the doctrine advocating social, political, and economic rights for … His primary aim however was to problematize “the claims that neuroscience reveals the underlying materiality of human psychology” (p. 368). Recent trends in American feminist theory constitute a huge project with two main thrusts so far. 3) Feminist theory: Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical ground. However, biology need not be understood as fixed and stable, which means that it is not inconsistent with a malleable gender that affords the possibility of social change. Feminist theory has the potential to move clinicians and educators from theory to action, building bridges of solidarity between the medical profession and the community it is called to serve. She has also collaborated on two large projects focused on violence against women (intimate partner violence and sexual assault). In On Photography, Susan Sontag derides photography for generating a sense of false objectivity. Recently, in trying to gauge how feminist critiques of psychology may have altered “psychological science”, Alice Eagly and Stephanie Riger (2014) argued that postpositivist epistemology clearly dominates psychology, at least within the United States, and that those who critique it (whom they refer to as “feminist postmodernists”) are firmly on the margins of the discipline, their exclusion from high impact journals being one sign that “these issues have not inspired much debate among psychological scientists, especially in the United States, other than among feminists and critical theorists” (p. 698). As I have already noted, concerns about the assumption of women’s biologically based inferiority and the attribution of perceived psychological and social sex differences to a biological cause had been raised by the early 20th-century foremothers of feminist psychology (Shields, 1975). Indeed, contemporary feminist theorizing predominantly orients to specific social locations. The relevant feminist scholarship on this topic is promising. We are at a point in history where the need to come to grips with the biological is necessary. Importantly, the “new” scholarship on social class asked different questions and implicated psychology as a discipline in the role of “producing class as a technique of social regulation” (Walkerdine, 1996, p. 357). In 2000, the inaugural issue of Feminist Theory addressed what “counts” as feminist theory in the editorial as well as in an interchange among three feminist scholars. the basis for intersectionality theory; Cole, 2009; Crenshaw, 1989, 1991; see also Shields, 2016, for an elaboration of her 1975 history of the psychology of women viewed from an intersectional perspective). These principles can be broken down into three basic beliefs. While the articles selected here orient to the debates I have briefly described, they also illustrate how postmodernist thought or a blend of modernist and postmodernist thought has been taken up in the journal and how feminist theory and critique related to sex and gender has developed over time (see Appendix 1). The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Article. Taking a poststructuralist approached that was influenced in particular by Foucault, she challenged the position that social class is simply a difference in social structure that produces different perspectives on the world. Beckett: Choosing Cesarean. Definition Feminism or feminist theory is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal which is to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for … If you have access to a journal via a society or association membership, please browse to your society journal, select an article to view, and follow the instructions in this box. Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines. It both offers critique of the received view and accompanying practices as well as theorizing how biology, the social, and culture are interconnected. Theorizing empathy as a human value and re-distributing empathy work between the sexes seems the solution, but effective strategies remain elusive. Her research interests include women's identities (in relation to mothering, aging, and discourses of womanhood) explored primarily through the lens of discursive psychology. As for those articles included here, they offer both critique and a way forward for addressing difference and negotiating the biological. All rights reserved. Kitzinger, 1991; Kitzinger & Perkins, 1993; Perkins, 1991) and those without (e.g. Building on the assumption that sex and gender are socially constructed and therefore not fixed, queer theory has drawn attention to the constraints of the normal and focused on resistance to sexual and gender norms and, not surprisingly, sexual and gender differences (Mann, 2012). Login failed. The theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes. In her contribution, Sarah Ahmed (2000, p. 97) playfully imagined the somebody doing the counting: I can almost see a ghostly image of a woman, upstairs in the dusty attics of our institutions, counting out theories, counting out feminisms. One is not born but rather. Specifically, I review feminist theorists' views on the key therapeutic domains of (a) healthy and unhealthy development and (b) therapeutic change, in addition to uncovering empirical support within and beyond feminist scholarship. It refers to generating systematic ideas that define women's place in society and culture, including the depiction of women—large questions, indeed. the assumption that we are self-contained and autonomous individuals, that is so taken for granted in much of US and US-inspired psychology. - It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. As well, the motivation behind such special issues is twofold – one is to recognize the contributions of the journal as it passed the 25-year mark and the other is pedagogical, i.e. In this chapter we describe the work of the National Conference on Education and Training in Feminist Practice (1993) group charged with defining the characteristics or guiding principles of a feminist theory of psychological practice. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women’s studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and philosophy. Suffice it to say, this general inclination has concealed the diversity that contemporary feminist theory, such as intersectionality theory (e.g. Articles . Thus, just as feminist critiques of science have highlighted how standard research practices constrain knowledge about the psychology of girls and women, Linda Birke emphasized how standard research practices constrain knowledge about non-human animals, objectifying them and denying them agency. Feminists who draw on alternative epistemologies begin from a position that is critical of this approach and propose, for example, that gender be understood as a performance and gender identity as a flexible subject position that is responsive to the specific social context. I could only reply “Yes, I am that woman” – well, at least in the pragmatic sense that I have to choose or there’s no point to the project. Finally, the article by Clifford van Ommen and Vasi van Deventer (2011) can be situated within the emerging field of critical neuroscience and the broad feminist literature that has been questioning a range of relevant binaries, including sex/gender and biology/culture. Furthermore, in current times with the neuropsychological “turn” in psychology, it would seem necessary for feminist psychologists to engage with the biological. Suffice it to say that this is the body of scholarship that forms the background for the relevant articles that I have selected. Terry Richardson and the Celebration of "Porn Chic:" A Critique of Fashion Photography . As another epistemological perspective, postmodernism is associated with a range of theories, including poststructuralism, postcolonial theory, and queer theory (Mann, 2012). In the end, I settled on a set that coalesced around four major theoretical issues relevant to domains of research interest within feminist psychology: differences, the biological, power and subjectivity. … I can almost hear her voice, gleeful and joyous, as she throws out some works, names them as impostors, saying that they don’t count, that they can’t be counted. This focuses attention on assumed fixed and measurable personal attributes, such as attitudes, cognitions, and personality traits and is likely to result in research adopting survey and experimental methods. Weisstein, 1968/1993) focused on precisely these sorts of issues in identifying the lack of knowledge about women specifically and the absence of women as producers of knowledge. It begins with a statement of ‘feminist intent’, moving then to consider the post-Cold War introduction of feminist scholarship into the academic study of international politics, namely the discipline of International Relations(IR). Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. Presumably, women are well suited biologically for the complex juggling necessitated by the mandate to put family first and the largely unyielding expectations of the workplace! Is she a mother-daughter-wife-sister? As in Cynthia Burack’s article, Blackman illuminated the importance of understanding the history of our analytic concepts and how their meanings have evolved over time. the knower can never be objective in the sense that postpositivism would have it, and consequently, there is never a single truth and all knowledge is situated). She nicely demonstrated the negotiations over the interpretation of the research even after it has achieved scientific legitimacy through publication. ” the state of feminist theoretical scholarship within psychology “ know feminist theory articles the of... Mean genetics, hormones, and of course calls into question the of. Woman worldwide around common interests not only about women ; it is about the world, engaged through intersectional! Very meanings of biology for humans nature of gender ( i.e course, the point. In how history, psychoanalysis, discourse analysis, or phenomenology to shine a spotlight on Radtke is in. 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